Mugo Phonology

Syllable Structure:

The 12 possible consonant clusters at the beginning of a syllable are formed by a stop + a lateral/flap or a voiceless fricative + a lateral/flap:

bl, br, pl, pr, fl, fr, dr, tr, gl, gr, kl, kr

When pronouncing the consonant clusters, a short vowel  similar to the main vowel or schwa [ə], may be inserted between the two consonants, usually happens only for emphasis.

Syllables containing consonant clusters can only be open syllables or end in "-n", so the most complex monosyllabic forms in mugo is "gren" and "blin" etc.

The end of a syllable only allows 7 single consonants: -p, -m, -t, -n, -ŋ, -l, -k. (However, currently, there are no words ending in -p in mugo.)

When pronouncing final consonants, they should be released(like in English) or followed by a short schwa [ə]. However, in compound words, the final consonant of the preceding syllable may not be released and be assimilated by the following consonant, resulting in a long consonant. For example, "lakta" can be pronounced as "lak ta" or "lat ta"(like in Finnish).

Mugo have long consonants(Gemination), indicated by double consonants or assimilation of similar or identical consonants (where the following consonant assimilates the preceding one): -pp-, -mm-, -ll-, -nn-, -kk-, -tt-.

Long consonants formed by phonetic assimilation:

-pb-(bb), -pv-(vv), -pf-(ff), -ppʰ-(pp/ppʰ), -pm-(mm), -ph-(pʰ/ppʰ)...

-td-(dd), -ttʰ-(tt/ttʰ), -th-(tʰ/ttʰ), -tz-(zz), -tn-(nn), -ts-(ts/tts/ss), -tc-(cc), -tdc-(ddc), -tx-(ts/tts/xx), -tñ-(ññ)

-lr-(ll/rr)...

-kg-(gg), -kh-(kʰ/kkʰ)...

Phonological Restrictions:

1. In non-compound words, two consecutive closed syllables are generally not allowed in polysyllabic words, but there may be exceptions. For example, other consonant codas can occur together with nasal codas (excluding geminate consonants):

batlak(×), batla(√), balak(√)

bansan(×), bansa(√), basan(√)

bansang(×), bansa(√), basang(√)

loksan(√), sukkon(√-gemination)

2. Multisyllabic words are not allowed to contain two consecutive diphthong syllables, especially two consecutive falling diphthongs or two consecutive rising diphthongs (except in compound words):

bailei(×), baili(√)

bielia(×), bieli(√)

bailia -(barely acceptable)

3. Syllables beginning with consonant clusters can only be open syllables or end with -n." 

blak(×), bla(√), blan(√)

Pitch Accent and Stress Accent：

There are pitch accents and stress accents in Mugo.

Pitch Accent: Low Tone, High Tone, Mid Tone

Low Tone, marked with `- à` on the main vowel: Tone value - 22 ˨˨ or 11 ˩˩ (low level tone, possibly with vowel lengthening) - Appears in syllables with voiced consonants and unaspirated consonants (with exceptions).

High Tone, marked with ′ - á on the main vowel: Tone value - 35 ˧˥ or 55 ˥˥ (mid-rising tone or high level tone) - Appears in syllables with aspirated consonants, unaspirated voiceless consonants, and non-voiced plosives (with exceptions).

Mid Tone, unmarked: Floating tone, tone value is influenced by the nearest low or high tone. - Can occur in syllables with any type of consonant.

A. The tonal contour of a word is determined by either a low tone or a high tone, with the first occurrence of a low or high tone in the word setting the contour:

For words with a low-tone dominant:

1. If the first syllable has a low tone, the contour rises from low to high (LH-).

2. If a middle syllable has a low tone, the contour is high, then falls, and rises again (HLH-).

3. If the final syllable has a low tone, the contour is high and then falls (-HL).

For words with a high-tone dominant:

1. If the first syllable has a high tone, the contour falls from high to low (HL-).

2. If a middle syllable has a high tone, the contour rises from low to high and then falls again (LHL-).

3. If the final syllable has a high tone, the contour rises from low to high (-LH).

B. In compound words, if there are two or more tone markers (high or low), the first low tone or the first high tone determines the tonal contour: dìmò (LH), bríní (HL).

C. Mid-tone words – Words without high or low tone markers typically have a stress on the first syllable or on the root, often with a higher pitch than other parts of the word, resulting in a natural tonal contour.

Stress Accent:

In Mugo, stress accents occur in mid tone words (words without tonal markers). It's important to note that the stress in Mugo is not very pronounced and it also doesn't serve the purpose of distinguishing word meanings. 

Typically, the stress falls on the first syllable or the root of the word, but there are exceptions. The rules are as follows:

1. Generally, the stress is on the root of the word, as prefixes can sometimes be added to the root, causing the root syllable to move away from the first syllable.

2. In words without prefixes and with open syllables, the stress falls on the first syllable because the root is in the first syllable.

3. For words ending in a consonant, the stress falls on the last syllable. In this case, even if the root is in the first syllable, the stress shifts to the last syllable. (Exception: Words ending in the consonant "-n" do not follow this rule. Words ending in "-n" should follow rules 1 and 2).

Note:

Pitch accent and stress accent do not occur simultaneously within a single word; the syllable with pitch accent is also the stressed syllable of the word. Mid tones adjust their pitch relative to the adjacent low or high tones. If a mid tone is next to a low tone, its pitch will be slightly lower; if it is next to a high tone, its pitch will be slightly higher. The principle is to avoid stark contrasts between the tones of adjacent syllables, aiming for a smoother transition.

Latinization and pronunciation:

Monophthongs

Aa [a]

Oo [o̞]

Ww  [ɯ]/[ə]

Uu  [u]

Yy [y]

Ee [e̞]

Ii [i]

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Compound Vowels

ua [wa], uo [wo̞], ue [we̞], ia [ja], io [jo̞], yu[ju], ie [je̞], iw[jɯ]。

ai [aj], oi [o̞j], ui [uj], wi [ɯj], ei [e̞j], au [aw], ou [o̞w], eu [e̞w], iu [iw]。

iai [jaj], ioi [jo̞j], iei [je̞j]。

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Consonants

Bb [b]

Pp [p]

Ph[pʰ]

Mm [m]

Vv [v]

Ff [f]

Dd [d]

Tt [t]

Th [tʰ]

Nn [n]

Ng [ŋ]

Ññ [ɲ]

Jj [j]

Ll [l]

Rr [ɾ]

Gg [g]

Kk [k]

Kh [kʰ]

Hh [h]

Zz [z]

Ss [s]

Xx [ɕ]

Dz [d͡z]

Ts [t͡s]

Dc [d͡ʑ]

Cc [t͡ɕ]

Uu [w]